AIR-Commissioned Papers
The AIR PIAAC commissioned papers, funded through a contract with the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) of the U.S. Department of Education, are intended to broaden the base of research through exploration and use of the PIAAC dataset and its analytical tools. Below, find access to the full-length of all published papers.
All Published Papers from: 2023 | 2022 | 2021 | 2020 | 2019 | 2018 | 2017 | 2016 | 2015
Recently Published Short-Form Publications:
Recently Published Papers:
Examining Literacy Skill Performance of Black Adults in the U.S.: A Case of Civic Engagement and Political Efficacy | Geleana Drew Alston, Takashi Yamashita, Ramon B. Goings and Leah Katherine Saal
Our study of the nationally representative data of adult populations from the 2012/2014/2017 Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) provides essential information on the roles of information processing skills (literacy skills) in the context of social, cultural, and political participation among Black women and men in the U.S. Specifically, our analysis documents associations between the literacy skills, civic engagement, and political efficacy of Black women in comparison to the general adult population and Black men.
Family Life Course, Gender, and Skill Mismatch | Dong Hoon Shin
In this paper we focus on a specific feature of education and skill mismatch – that of the effect of family factors on gender differences in the incidence of education and skill mismatch. These family factors include the presence of a spouse, spousal employment status, and the number of children. We want to know if characteristics of families are more important determinants of the likelihood of mismatch for women than they are for men.
Read the entire paper here
Examining Differences in Information Processing Skill Performance of Black Adults in the U.S. | Leah Katherine Saal, Takashi Yamashita, and Ramon B. Goings
This exploratory analysis will document and examine the differences in the information processing skill proficiencies (low, middle, high) of Black adults in the U.S. (ages 16-74) by key socioeconomic and related demographic characteristics (e.g., age, gender, education level, employment, health). Illuminating bridges and barriers (factors of success) for Black adult learners’ information processing skill proficiency across relationships may have important implications for creating more equitable, targeted, and relevant employment, health, and/or educational curricula/methods, services, programs, and policies.
Read the entire paper here
Using PIAAC to Examine Characteristics and Numeracy Skills of Adults Who Do Not Complete Degree or Certificate Programs | Frank Fernandez
This paper seeks to identify groups who began but did not complete educational qualifications and consider the importance of both background characteristics and numeracy skills as predictors of non-completion. Findings will help identify groups (both in terms of background demographics and assessed numeracy skill level) that could benefit from additional assistance in completing educational qualifications.
The Importance of Skills and Qualifications for College-Educated Immigrants’ Economic Integration | Jeanne Batalova and Michael Fix
Analyzing the combined 2012/14/17 PIAAC data, the authors seek to better understand the challenges and opportunities that U.S. immigrant adults with at least a bachelor’s degree face in using their education and skills to integrate economically.
Read the entire paper here
Assessed Skills and Skills Use of Adults with Learning Disabilities in PIAAC | Margaret Becker Patterson
Using U.S. PIAAC 2012/14/17 data. In this study authors investigate numeracy/digital literacy skills and skill use for U.S. adults with learning disabilities (LD), comparing with those of the general population. They also address differences of skills use at work and at home among employed adults with LD and general employed population
Read the entire paper here
The importance of IALS, ALL and PIAAC results to U.S. Policy | T. Scott Murray and Marilyn Binkley
The report presents an overview of the economic theories upon which IALS, ALL and PIAAC are based including human capital theory and the theory of skill-biased technical change. The authors then provide a summary of what analyses of these datasets reveals about how the demand for the skills has been evolving, how aggregate supply has been changing over time and how markets for skill function with respect to skill.
Examining Individual Differences in PIAAC Literacy Performance: Reading Components and Demographic Characteristics of Low-Skilled Adults From the U.S. Prison and Household Samples
Elizabeth L. Tighe, Deborah K. Reed, Gal Kaldes, Amani Talwar, and Christina Doan
This paper will use the U.S. PIAAC 2014 Prison data and the PIAAC 2012/2014 Household data to explore potential demographic differences as well as differences in reading component skill relations to Literacy for low-skilled U.S. adults compared to low-skilled U.S. incarcerated adults. Understanding similarities and differences may have important implications for tailoring correctional education to component skill deficits or for demographic subgroups to better meet the specific needs of U.S. adult prisoners. In addition, the findings will help us understand whether common theoretical models of reading applied to struggling adult readers are also applicable to the U.S. adult prison population.
Read the entire paper here
2023 Published Papers
Published Papers:
Bridges and Barriers: Examining Differences in Information Processing Skill Performance of Black Adults in the U.S.
(Leah Katherine Saal, Loyola University Maryland; Takashi Yamashita and Ramon Goings, University of Maryland, Baltimore County)
This exploratory analysis will document and examine the differences in the information processing skill proficiencies (low, middle, high) of Black adults in the U.S. (ages 16-74) by key socioeconomic and related demographic characteristics (e.g., age, gender, education level, employment, health). Illuminating bridges and barriers (factors of success) for Black adult learners’ information processing skill proficiency across relationships may have important implications for creating more equitable, targeted, and relevant employment, health, and/or educational curricula/methods, services, programs, and policies. This paper will utilize the 2012/2014/2017 PIAAC data to answer the research question:
Which socioeconomic and related demographic characteristics are associated with information processing proficiencies of Black adults in the U.S?
Family Structure, Gender, and Labor Market Mismatch
(Dong Hoon Shin, University of Iowa)
The alignment between the education and skills held by job seekers and workers with the education and skills demanded by the workplace has long been of interest to analysts of the labor market. By varying accounts, workers can have too much, too little, or just the right amount of schooling or skill to perform their jobs. The relationships between the supply of and demand for education and skills may change as workers age, as the supply of education and skills in the labor market changes (typically though educational expansion), and as the demands of technology, work, and employers change (typically increasing). Similarly, the incidence of educational mismatch and skill mismatch can be expected to vary across societies with different institutional and labor market characteristics.
In this paper we focus on a specific feature of education and skill mismatch – that of the effect of family factors on gender differences in the incidence of education and skill mismatch. These family factors include the presence of a spouse, spousal employment status, and the number of children. We want to know if characteristics of families are more important determinants of the likelihood of mismatch for women than they are for men. In particular, we are interested in the following research questions:
How does gender (spouse’s working status) predict the likelihood of skill mismatch?
Are the effects of gender (spouse’s working status) on the likelihood of skill mismatch different for each phase of family life course?
2023 Published Papers
Published Papers:
Bridges and Barriers: Examining Differences in Information Processing Skill Performance of Black Adults in the U.S.
(Leah Katherine Saal, Loyola University Maryland; Takashi Yamashita and Ramon Goings, University of Maryland, Baltimore County)
This exploratory analysis will document and examine the differences in the information processing skill proficiencies (low, middle, high) of Black adults in the U.S. (ages 16-74) by key socioeconomic and related demographic characteristics (e.g., age, gender, education level, employment, health). Illuminating bridges and barriers (factors of success) for Black adult learners’ information processing skill proficiency across relationships may have important implications for creating more equitable, targeted, and relevant employment, health, and/or educational curricula/methods, services, programs, and policies. This paper will utilize the 2012/2014/2017 PIAAC data to answer the research question:
Which socioeconomic and related demographic characteristics are associated with information processing proficiencies of Black adults in the U.S?
Family Structure, Gender, and Labor Market Mismatch
(Dong Hoon Shin, University of Iowa)
The alignment between the education and skills held by job seekers and workers with the education and skills demanded by the workplace has long been of interest to analysts of the labor market. By varying accounts, workers can have too much, too little, or just the right amount of schooling or skill to perform their jobs. The relationships between the supply of and demand for education and skills may change as workers age, as the supply of education and skills in the labor market changes (typically though educational expansion), and as the demands of technology, work, and employers change (typically increasing). Similarly, the incidence of educational mismatch and skill mismatch can be expected to vary across societies with different institutional and labor market characteristics.
In this paper we focus on a specific feature of education and skill mismatch – that of the effect of family factors on gender differences in the incidence of education and skill mismatch. These family factors include the presence of a spouse, spousal employment status, and the number of children. We want to know if characteristics of families are more important determinants of the likelihood of mismatch for women than they are for men. In particular, we are interested in the following research questions:
How does gender (spouse’s working status) predict the likelihood of skill mismatch?
Are the effects of gender (spouse’s working status) on the likelihood of skill mismatch different for each phase of family life course?
Short-Form Brief:
Examining Literacy Skill Performance of Black Adults in the U.S.: A Case of Civic Engagement and Political Efficacy
(Geleana Drew Alston, North Carolina A & T State University; Takashi Yamashita, University of Maryland, Baltimore County; Ramon Goings, University of Maryland, Baltimore County; and Leah Katherine Saal, Loyola University Maryland)
Our study of the nationally representative data of adult populations from the 2012/2014/2017 Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) provides essential information on the roles of information processing skills (literacy skills) in the context of social, cultural, and political participation among Black women and men in the U.S. Specifically, our analysis documents associations between the literacy skills, civic engagement, and political efficacy of Black women in comparison to the general adult population and Black men. Conducting within-group analyses on the intersection of race and gender in terms of literacy skill, political efficacy, and civic engagement for the Black adult population can lead to more socially and culturally sustaining civic education programs and policies which promote civic and political engagement and foster racial equity in communities as well as societies. This paper will answer the research questions:
Are the levels of information processing skills (i.e., adult literacy proficiency) associated with civic engagement and political efficacy among Black adults in the U.S.?
Are there any gender differences in the associations between civic engagement, political efficacy, and, information processing skills (i.e., adult literacy proficiency) among Black adults in the U.S.?
2022 Published Papers
Published Papers:
The Importance of Skills and Qualifications for College-Educated Immigrants’ Economic Integration
(Jeanne Batalova and Michael Fix, Migration Policy Institute)
More than 10 million U.S. workers with college degrees, or one in six, are immigrants. While many have found jobs that make full use of their education and skills, nearly a quarter are underemployed, that is, they are either working in jobs that require no more than a high school diploma or are out of work. Tackling immigrants’ skill underemployment can help reduce skills shortages, especially in critical industries like healthcare. It can also address labor needs in parts of the United States that are experiencing shortages among health care and other high skill workers. Analyzing the combined 2012/14/17 PIAAC data, the authors seek to better understand the challenges and opportunities that U.S. immigrant adults with at least a bachelor’s degree face in using their education and skills to integrate economically. In particular, the researchers address the following research questions:
What is the relationship between economic integration outcomes of college-educated immigrant adults and their literacy and numeracy skills as well as their ability to problem solve in technology-rich environments? How does this relationship differ from U.S.-born college graduates?
How do the relationships between these skills and integration outcomes vary for immigrants depending on their age at entry, place of education, English proficiency, degree level, and degree majors?
The importance of IALS, ALL and PIAAC results to U.S. policy
(T. Scott Murray and Marilyn Binkley, DataAngel Policy Research)
The report presents an overview of the economic theories upon which IALS, ALL and PIAAC are based including human capital theory and the theory of skill-biased technical change. The authors then provide a summary of what analyses of these datasets reveals about how the demand for the skills has been evolving, how aggregate supply has been changing over time and how markets for skill function with respect to skill. The results presented in the report document:
A steady increase in the occupational demand for literacy skill over the past 30 years,
An unexpected falling aggregate supply of literacy skill linked to significant skill loss in adulthood, and,
Increases in the impact that literacy skill is having on key economic outcomes measured at the individual and macro level.
U.S. policy makers have traditionally relied on demand-pull measures i.e. measures that serve to increase the demand for skills, including the demand for literacy skills. Such investments have included investments in Research and Development and infrastructure to foster growth while assuming the education and labour markets would adjust efficiently to any shocks created by shifts in the terms of trade. Significant investments have also been made to increase the supply of skill available to the economy. For the most part these investments have served to increase participation rates and average years of schooling in the initial cycle of education with little attention being paid to the quality of the education being provided or the fit of new skill supply to the evolving needs of the economy. Based upon the evidence reviewed the authors conclude that there is a need to balance supply-side measures designed to increase the aggregate of literacy skill rapidly enough to reduce the projected growth of literacy skill shortages with demand-side measures designed to increase the economic demand for literacy skill and measures that increase the efficiency with markets utilize literacy skill.
More balanced policy would help maintain the competitiveness of U.S.-based producers on international markets and reduce that rate at which skill-based inequality in individual labour market outcomes are growing.
Assessed Skills and Skill Use of Adults with Learning Disabilities in PIAAC
(Margaret Becker Patterson, Research Allies for Lifelong Learning)
A sizeable proportion of adults deals with the challenges of learning disabilities (LD); along with having LD, a major concern is the incidence of other disabilities and health conditions. Adults with LD face educational and employment challenges as well. Little is known about their skills in numeracy and digital literacy and how they use those skills, whether in the workplace or at home. The study’s objective is to investigate numeracy/digital literacy skills and skill use for U.S. adults with LD. The study will conduct descriptive and regression analyses of U.S. PIAAC 2012/14/17 data. Findings will be presented on assessed numeracy and digital literacy skills, use of skills at work and at home, relationships of use and skills in both domains and locations, and use of skills among discrete groups of adults with LD. Implications of findings will be discussed for adult and postsecondary educators, employers and human resource staff, and policy makers. The author will address the following questions:
How do assessed skills in numeracy/digital literacy differ for adults with learning disabilities, compared with the general population, and what is the role of co-existing health and disabling conditions (e.g., vision and auditory difficulties as well as permanent disability)?
How does skill use at work in numeracy/digital literacy differ for employed adults with learning disabilities, compared with the general employed population?
How does skill use at home in numeracy/digital literacy differ for adults with learning disabilities who are outside the workforce, compared with the general population outside the workforce?
Controlling for selected demographic and background characteristics, what is the relationship of assessed numeracy skills with numeracy skills use, and of assessed skills in digital literacy with digital literacy skill use, at work or at home for adults with learning disabilities?
How does numeracy/digital literacy skill use at work or at home of adults with learning disabilities differ among discrete groups based on covariates and skill levels?
Examining Individuals’ Differences in PIAAC Literacy Performance: Reading Components and Demographic Characteristics of Prisoners and the U.S. Household Sample
(Elizabeth L. Tighe, Georgia State University; Deborah K. Reed, University of Iowa; Gal Kaldes, Amani Talwar, and Christina Doan, Georgia State University)
This paper will use the U.S. PIAAC 2014 Prison data and the PIAAC 2012/2014 Household data to explore potential demographic differences as well as differences in reading component skill relations to Literacy for low-skilled U.S. adults compared to low-skilled U.S. incarcerated adults. Understanding similarities and differences may have important implications for tailoring correctional education to component skill deficits or for demographic subgroups to better meet the specific needs of U.S. adult prisoners. In addition, the findings will help us understand whether common theoretical models of reading applied to struggling adult readers are also applicable to the U.S. adult prison population. Specifically, the researchers will address the following questions:
Are there demographic differences (e.g., age, race/ethnicity, parental education levels, self-reported learning disability status, native language status) among low-skilled prisoners (at or below Level 2) and the low-skilled U.S. household sample that took the Reading Components Supplement? Are there differences in terms of Literacy proficiency levels between the two groups?
What are the relations of the component skills (Picture Vocabulary, Sentence Processing, Passage Comprehension) to Literacy for the low-skilled prison and general household population (at or below Level 2 in Literacy) that completed the Reading Components Supplement? Are there any differences in these relations for the low-skilled prison population that completed the Components compared to the low-skilled general U.S. household sample that completed the Components?
Utilization of preventive healthcare by native and non-native speakers of English in the U.S.
(Tanya Longabach, Kaplan Professional)
This paper uses PIAAC 2012/2014 data to study relations between preventive health care utilization (PHCU) (receiving a flu shot, a vision checkup, and a dental checkup) and native speaker of English status, as well as literacy and numeracy, controlling for various other demographic factors (such as age, gender, ethnicity, income, educational status, employment status, having medical insurance, and self-described health status). Specifically, the researcher addresses the following questions:
Are there differences in the utilization of preventive care (flu shot, vision checkup, dentist visit) between native speakers of English vs non-native speakers of English, controlling for demographic factors (age, gender, ethnicity), socioeconomic factors (income, educational status, employment status), health-related factors (having medical insurance and self-described health status), and cognitive factors (literacy and numeracy skills)? Is the relationship between literacy and PHCU stronger than the relationship between numeracy and PHCU?
For non-native speakers of English, does the age of English language acquisition and self-rated language proficiency have an impact on PHCU, controlling for the demographic, socioeconomic, health-related, and cognitive factors listed above?
Using PIAAC to Examine Characteristics and Numeracy Skills of Adults Who Do Not Complete Degree or Certificate Programs
(Frank Fernandez, The University of Mississippi)
This paper seeks to identify groups who began but did not complete educational qualifications and consider the importance of both background characteristics and numeracy skills as predictors of non-completion. Findings will help identify groups (both in terms of background demographics and assessed numeracy skill level) that could benefit from additional assistance in completing educational qualifications. This study will use PIAAC 2012/14/17 data to address the following research questions:
How does not completing formal educational qualifications vary by numeracy proficiency levels?
Which background characteristics are related to not completing formal educational qualifications?
In what ways do the estimated relationships between background characteristics and non-completion of educational qualifications vary across numeracy proficiency levels?
2022 Published Papers
Published Papers:
The Importance of Skills and Qualifications for College-Educated Immigrants’ Economic Integration
(Jeanne Batalova and Michael Fix, Migration Policy Institute)
More than 10 million U.S. workers with college degrees, or one in six, are immigrants. While many have found jobs that make full use of their education and skills, nearly a quarter are underemployed, that is, they are either working in jobs that require no more than a high school diploma or are out of work. Tackling immigrants’ skill underemployment can help reduce skills shortages, especially in critical industries like healthcare. It can also address labor needs in parts of the United States that are experiencing shortages among health care and other high skill workers. Analyzing the combined 2012/14/17 PIAAC data, the authors seek to better understand the challenges and opportunities that U.S. immigrant adults with at least a bachelor’s degree face in using their education and skills to integrate economically. In particular, the researchers address the following research questions:
What is the relationship between economic integration outcomes of college-educated immigrant adults and their literacy and numeracy skills as well as their ability to problem solve in technology-rich environments? How does this relationship differ from U.S.-born college graduates?
How do the relationships between these skills and integration outcomes vary for immigrants depending on their age at entry, place of education, English proficiency, degree level, and degree majors?
The importance of IALS, ALL and PIAAC results to U.S. policy
(T. Scott Murray and Marilyn Binkley, DataAngel Policy Research)
The report presents an overview of the economic theories upon which IALS, ALL and PIAAC are based including human capital theory and the theory of skill-biased technical change. The authors then provide a summary of what analyses of these datasets reveals about how the demand for the skills has been evolving, how aggregate supply has been changing over time and how markets for skill function with respect to skill. The results presented in the report document:
A steady increase in the occupational demand for literacy skill over the past 30 years,
An unexpected falling aggregate supply of literacy skill linked to significant skill loss in adulthood, and,
Increases in the impact that literacy skill is having on key economic outcomes measured at the individual and macro level.
U.S. policy makers have traditionally relied on demand-pull measures i.e. measures that serve to increase the demand for skills, including the demand for literacy skills. Such investments have included investments in Research and Development and infrastructure to foster growth while assuming the education and labour markets would adjust efficiently to any shocks created by shifts in the terms of trade. Significant investments have also been made to increase the supply of skill available to the economy. For the most part these investments have served to increase participation rates and average years of schooling in the initial cycle of education with little attention being paid to the quality of the education being provided or the fit of new skill supply to the evolving needs of the economy. Based upon the evidence reviewed the authors conclude that there is a need to balance supply-side measures designed to increase the aggregate of literacy skill rapidly enough to reduce the projected growth of literacy skill shortages with demand-side measures designed to increase the economic demand for literacy skill and measures that increase the efficiency with markets utilize literacy skill. More balanced policy would help maintain the competitiveness of U.S.-based producers on international markets and reduce that rate at which skill-based inequality in individual labour market outcomes are growing.
Assessed Skills and Skill Use of Adults with Learning Disabilities in PIAAC
(Margaret Becker Patterson, Research Allies for Lifelong Learning)
A sizeable proportion of adults deals with the challenges of learning disabilities (LD); along with having LD, a major concern is the incidence of other disabilities and health conditions. Adults with LD face educational and employment challenges as well. Little is known about their skills in numeracy and digital literacy and how they use those skills, whether in the workplace or at home. The study’s objective is to investigate numeracy/digital literacy skills and skill use for U.S. adults with LD. The study will conduct descriptive and regression analyses of U.S. PIAAC 2012/14/17 data. Findings will be presented on assessed numeracy and digital literacy skills, use of skills at work and at home, relationships of use and skills in both domains and locations, and use of skills among discrete groups of adults with LD. Implications of findings will be discussed for adult and postsecondary educators, employers and human resource staff, and policy makers. The author will address the following questions:
How do assessed skills in numeracy/digital literacy differ for adults with learning disabilities, compared with the general population, and what is the role of co-existing health and disabling conditions (e.g., vision and auditory difficulties as well as permanent disability)?
How does skill use at work in numeracy/digital literacy differ for employed adults with learning disabilities, compared with the general employed population?
How does skill use at home in numeracy/digital literacy differ for adults with learning disabilities who are outside the workforce, compared with the general population outside the workforce?
Controlling for selected demographic and background characteristics, what is the relationship of assessed numeracy skills with numeracy skills use, and of assessed skills in digital literacy with digital literacy skill use, at work or at home for adults with learning disabilities?
How does numeracy/digital literacy skill use at work or at home of adults with learning disabilities differ among discrete groups based on covariates and skill levels?
Examining Individuals’ Differences in PIAAC Literacy Performance: Reading Components and Demographic Characteristics of Prisoners and the U.S. Household Sample
(Elizabeth L. Tighe, Georgia State University; Deborah K. Reed, University of Iowa; Gal Kaldes, Amani Talwar, and Christina Doan, Georgia State University)
This paper will use the U.S. PIAAC 2014 Prison data and the PIAAC 2012/2014 Household data to explore potential demographic differences as well as differences in reading component skill relations to Literacy for low-skilled U.S. adults compared to low-skilled U.S. incarcerated adults. Understanding similarities and differences may have important implications for tailoring correctional education to component skill deficits or for demographic subgroups to better meet the specific needs of U.S. adult prisoners. In addition, the findings will help us understand whether common theoretical models of reading applied to struggling adult readers are also applicable to the U.S. adult prison population. Specifically, the researchers will address the following questions:
Are there demographic differences (e.g., age, race/ethnicity, parental education levels, self-reported learning disability status, native language status) among low-skilled prisoners (at or below Level 2) and the low-skilled U.S. household sample that took the Reading Components Supplement? Are there differences in terms of Literacy proficiency levels between the two groups?
What are the relations of the component skills (Picture Vocabulary, Sentence Processing, Passage Comprehension) to Literacy for the low-skilled prison and general household population (at or below Level 2 in Literacy) that completed the Reading Components Supplement? Are there any differences in these relations for the low-skilled prison population that completed the Components compared to the low-skilled general U.S. household sample that completed the Components?
Utilization of preventive healthcare by native and non-native speakers of English in the U.S.
(Tanya Longabach, Kaplan Professional)
This paper uses PIAAC 2012/2014 data to study relations between preventive health care utilization (PHCU) (receiving a flu shot, a vision checkup, and a dental checkup) and native speaker of English status, as well as literacy and numeracy, controlling for various other demographic factors (such as age, gender, ethnicity, income, educational status, employment status, having medical insurance, and self-described health status). Specifically, the researcher addresses the following questions:
Are there differences in the utilization of preventive care (flu shot, vision checkup, dentist visit) between native speakers of English vs non-native speakers of English, controlling for demographic factors (age, gender, ethnicity), socioeconomic factors (income, educational status, employment status), health-related factors (having medical insurance and self-described health status), and cognitive factors (literacy and numeracy skills)? Is the relationship between literacy and PHCU stronger than the relationship between numeracy and PHCU?
For non-native speakers of English, does the age of English language acquisition and self-rated language proficiency have an impact on PHCU, controlling for the demographic, socioeconomic, health-related, and cognitive factors listed above?
Using PIAAC to Examine Characteristics and Numeracy Skills of Adults Who Do Not Complete Degree or Certificate Programs
(Frank Fernandez, The University of Mississippi)
This paper seeks to identify groups who began but did not complete educational qualifications and consider the importance of both background characteristics and numeracy skills as predictors of non-completion. Findings will help identify groups (both in terms of background demographics and assessed numeracy skill level) that could benefit from additional assistance in completing educational qualifications. This study will use PIAAC 2012/14/17 data to address the following research questions:
How does not completing formal educational qualifications vary by numeracy proficiency levels?
Which background characteristics are related to not completing formal educational qualifications?
In what ways do the estimated relationships between background characteristics and non-completion of educational qualifications vary across numeracy proficiency levels?
2021 Publised Papers
Do Immigrants Experience Education-Job Mismatch? New Evidence from the U.S. PIAAC
(Margarita Pivovarova and Jeanne M. Powers, Mary Lou Fulton Teachers College at Arizona State University)
This paper uses the U.S. PIAAC 2012/2014 data to investigate the factors associated with education-job mismatches among immigrant and native workers. In this study, mismatch is defined as a situation when a worker’s education level is above (overeducation) or below (undereducation) the modal, or most common educational level in the worker’s current occupational category. The authors will address following research questions:
What is the extent of education-job mismatch for workers by immigrant generation?
What factors are associated with overeducation for immigrant workers?
2021 Publised Papers
Do Immigrants Experience Education-Job Mismatch? New Evidence from the U.S. PIAAC
(Margarita Pivovarova and Jeanne M. Powers, Mary Lou Fulton Teachers College at Arizona State University)
This paper uses the U.S. PIAAC 2012/2014 data to investigate the factors associated with education-job mismatches among immigrant and native workers. In this study, mismatch is defined as a situation when a worker’s education level is above (overeducation) or below (undereducation) the modal, or most common educational level in the worker’s current occupational category. The authors will address following research questions:
What is the extent of education-job mismatch for workers by immigrant generation?
What factors are associated with overeducation for immigrant workers?
2020 Published Papers
Using Log Files to Identify Sequential Patterns in PIAAC Problem Solving Environments by U.S. Adults’ Employment Status
(Dandan Liao, Cambium Learning Group; Qiwei He, Educational Testing Service; and Hong Jiao, University of Maryland)
This paper uses PIAAC 2012 process data, collected in log files and existing data from the PIAAC survey, to identify malleable factors from employment-related background variables associated with problem-solving skills that can be of use in improving these competences in U.S. adult education. In particular, the authors address the following three questions:
What features can we extract from process data discriminating best between subgroups with different employment-related variables?
Clustering test takers based on features extracted from process data, what do test takers in each cluster have in common regarding employment-related variables? And what are the characteristics of the clusters with respect to employment?
Are test-takers’ response behaviors consistent across items? What are the employment-related characteristics of the test takers that are consistent, versus those who are inconsistent in their response behaviors?
Parental Education and Skill Indicators of Children: An Intergenerational Mobility Study
(Sara Oloomi, Citizens Financial Group)
This paper uses U.S. PIAAC 2012/2014 data to study the impact of parental education on their children’s outcomes, including differences by sociodemographic characteristics and a specific look at the impact within STEM fields. The author addresses the following questions:
Is parental education associated with outcomes of their children, including education, employment status, occupational skill classification, earning, and cognitive skills (literacy, numeracy, and problem-solving scores) in the U.S.?
Do the relationships between parental education and outcomes of children vary across different segments of the population including racial/ethnic and gender groups in the U.S.?
What are the ranges of relative and absolute upward mobility in education, employment status, occupational skill classification, earning, and cognitive skills (literacy, numeracy, and problem-solving scores) in the U.S.?
Is parental education associated with propensity to study/work in STEM?
To what extent parental education is associated with the gender gap in study/work in STEM? Is the gender gap lower among children with high parental education compared to children with low parental education?
Do the relationships between parental education and propensity to study/work in STEM as well as gender gap in STEM vary across different racial/ethnic groups?
Literacy and Growth: New Evidence from PIAAC
(T. Scott Murray, DataAngel Policy Research; Guido Schwerdt, University of Konstanz; and Simon Wiederhold, Catholic University Eichstaett-Ingolstadt)
The authors study the impact that changes in the average level of literacy skill and in the distribution of literacy skill have had on key indicators of macroeconomic performance, including the rates of GDP growth and labor productivity growth in OECD economies, using data from the 2003 ALL and the 2011 OECD PIAAC adult skills survey. The goal of this study is to highlight how these impacts have changed and to estimate the magnitude of lost output associated with skill loss. This latter analysis sheds light on the potential benefits of policy measures that would increase the demand for literacy skill enough to reduce skill loss to zero.
View full research paper ›
Incarcerated Adults with Dependent Children
(Daniel M. Leeds, Juliana Pearson, Simone Robers, and Leslie Scott, CNA Education)
This paper uses 2014 PIAAC prison data to study factors that influence the educational attainment, employment, economic mobility, and successful reentry of justice-involved parents. Specifically, the paper answers the following questions:
What are the educational attainment levels of incarcerated parents with dependent children (i.e., any children under age 18), how do these differ by literacy and numeracy skill level, and is there an intergenerational correlation between their skill levels and their parents’ education?
Does the highest level of education for incarcerated parents with dependent children vary by literacy and numeracy skill levels (level 2 and below, level 3, and level 4/5)?
To what extent are literacy and numeracy skills of incarcerated parents with dependent children associated with the educational attainment of their parents?
Does PIAAC show clear factors facilitating or impeding incarcerated adults’ educational progress, and does this vary by whether these adults have dependent children?
What percentage of incarcerated parents with dependent children have expressed an interest in pursuing education and training while in prison? How does this compare with incarcerated individuals without dependent children?
Are incarcerated parents with dependent children more likely than incarcerated individuals without dependent children to participate in education and training while in prison? What are the motivating factors?
In which programs (e.g., those offering a high school diploma or GED versus a certificate from a college or trade school) do incarcerated parents with dependent children enroll?
Do incarcerated parents with dependent children face barriers to pursuing educational programs due to program capacity constraints?
Does access to education and training vary by time to release from prison for incarcerated parents with dependent children?
2020 Published Papers
Using Log Files to Identify Sequential Patterns in PIAAC Problem Solving Environments by U.S. Adults’ Employment Status
(Dandan Liao, Cambium Learning Group; Qiwei He, Educational Testing Service; and Hong Jiao, University of Maryland)
This paper uses PIAAC 2012 process data, collected in log files and existing data from the PIAAC survey, to identify malleable factors from employment-related background variables associated with problem-solving skills that can be of use in improving these competences in U.S. adult education. In particular, the authors address the following three questions:
What features can we extract from process data discriminating best between subgroups with different employment-related variables?
Clustering test takers based on features extracted from process data, what do test takers in each cluster have in common regarding employment-related variables? And what are the characteristics of the clusters with respect to employment?
Are test-takers’ response behaviors consistent across items? What are the employment-related characteristics of the test takers that are consistent, versus those who are inconsistent in their response behaviors?
Parental Education and Skill Indicators of Children: An Intergenerational Mobility Study
(Sara Oloomi, Citizens Financial Group)
This paper uses U.S. PIAAC 2012/2014 data to study the impact of parental education on their children’s outcomes, including differences by sociodemographic characteristics and a specific look at the impact within STEM fields. The author addresses the following questions:
Is parental education associated with outcomes of their children, including education, employment status, occupational skill classification, earning, and cognitive skills (literacy, numeracy, and problem-solving scores) in the U.S.?
Do the relationships between parental education and outcomes of children vary across different segments of the population including racial/ethnic and gender groups in the U.S.?
What are the ranges of relative and absolute upward mobility in education, employment status, occupational skill classification, earning, and cognitive skills (literacy, numeracy, and problem-solving scores) in the U.S.?
Is parental education associated with propensity to study/work in STEM?
To what extent parental education is associated with the gender gap in study/work in STEM? Is the gender gap lower among children with high parental education compared to children with low parental education?
Do the relationships between parental education and propensity to study/work in STEM as well as gender gap in STEM vary across different racial/ethnic groups?
Literacy and Growth: New Evidence from PIAAC
(T. Scott Murray, DataAngel Policy Research; Guido Schwerdt, University of Konstanz; and Simon Wiederhold, Catholic University Eichstaett-Ingolstadt)
The authors study the impact that changes in the average level of literacy skill and in the distribution of literacy skill have had on key indicators of macroeconomic performance, including the rates of GDP growth and labor productivity growth in OECD economies, using data from the 2003 ALL and the 2011 OECD PIAAC adult skills survey. The goal of this study is to highlight how these impacts have changed and to estimate the magnitude of lost output associated with skill loss. This latter analysis sheds light on the potential benefits of policy measures that would increase the demand for literacy skill enough to reduce skill loss to zero.
View full research paper ›
Incarcerated Adults with Dependent Children
(Daniel M. Leeds, Juliana Pearson, Simone Robers, and Leslie Scott, CNA Education)
This paper uses 2014 PIAAC prison data to study factors that influence the educational attainment, employment, economic mobility, and successful reentry of justice-involved parents. Specifically, the paper answers the following questions:
What are the educational attainment levels of incarcerated parents with dependent children (i.e., any children under age 18), how do these differ by literacy and numeracy skill level, and is there an intergenerational correlation between their skill levels and their parents’ education?
Does the highest level of education for incarcerated parents with dependent children vary by literacy and numeracy skill levels (level 2 and below, level 3, and level 4/5)?
To what extent are literacy and numeracy skills of incarcerated parents with dependent children associated with the educational attainment of their parents?
Does PIAAC show clear factors facilitating or impeding incarcerated adults’ educational progress, and does this vary by whether these adults have dependent children?
What percentage of incarcerated parents with dependent children have expressed an interest in pursuing education and training while in prison? How does this compare with incarcerated individuals without dependent children?
Are incarcerated parents with dependent children more likely than incarcerated individuals without dependent children to participate in education and training while in prison? What are the motivating factors?
In which programs (e.g., those offering a high school diploma or GED versus a certificate from a college or trade school) do incarcerated parents with dependent children enroll?
Do incarcerated parents with dependent children face barriers to pursuing educational programs due to program capacity constraints?
Does access to education and training vary by time to release from prison for incarcerated parents with dependent children?
2019 Published Papers
Writing Behaviors Relation to Literacy and Problem Solving in Technology Rich Environments: Results from the 2012 and 2014 U.S. PIAAC Study
(Iris Feinberg, Amani Talwar, Elizabeth Tighe & Daphne Greenberg, The Adult Literacy Research Center, Georgia State University)
This paper uses PIAAC 2012/2014 data to study relations among the PIAAC literacy domain, the problem solving in technology-rich environments (PSTRE) domain, reading behaviors, and various demographic characteristics (e.g., age, educational attainment, race, gender, and native language status) to adults’ writing behaviors at home and at work. Specifically, the researchers address the following questions:
What are the relations among the writing behaviors indices at home/at work and the reading behaviors indices at home/at work? Do these relations vary by demographic characteristics (age, educational attainment, race, gender, or native language status) and reading behaviors?
Are PIAAC literacy and PSTRE skills jointly and uniquely predictive of writing behaviors indices at home and/or at work? Do different demographic characteristics (age, educational attainment, race, gender, or native language status) and/or reading behavior indices at home/at work moderate the relations of literacy and PSTRE levels on writing behaviors at home and/or at work?
What are the relations among functional daily reading behaviors at home/at work (reading directions, letters/emails, newspapers/magazines, books) and functional daily writing behaviors at home/at work (writing letters/emails, filling out forms)? Do these relations vary by demographic characteristics (literacy level, age, educational attainment, race, gender, or native language status)?
Revisiting the Determinants of Literacy Proficiency: A Lifelong-Lifewide Learning Perspective
(Richard Desjardins and Gina Cobin, University of California Los Angeles)
This paper uses PIAAC data to examine the determinants of literacy proficiency. Specifically, the authors aim to further examine the underlying structure of the determinants from a lifecycle perspective and the trends in this structure at both the micro and macro levels for countries that participated in both the PIAAC and IALS studies. The authors address the following questions:
To what extent has literacy proficiency changed since the 1990s and how does this relate to the growth of qualifications and knowledge economies as well as immigration in different countries?
What is the underlying structure of adult literacy from a lifecycle theory perspective? What indicators and pathways to adult literacy proficiency emerge from analysis of data from both the PIAAC and IALS studies?
What are the kinds of policy relevant insights that can be yielded from analyses of PIAAC type trend data regarding the determinants of adult literacy proficiency across specific contexts and across countries?
Collaboration at Work and PIAAC Skills
(Tobin Lopes, Colorado State University; Ellen Scully-Russ, George Washington University; Jill Zarestky, Colorado State University; and Joshua C. Collins, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities)
This paper is focused on studying the relationship between level of collaboration, cooperation, and information sharing at work and respondents’ skills in literacy, numeracy, and problem solving in technology-rich environments. Specifically, authors address the following questions:
What is the relationship between cooperation/collaboration and information sharing and literacy, numeracy, and PS-TRE skills across industry sectors, controlling for gender and education?
How does the relationship between cooperation/collaboration and information sharing and adults’ use of specified skills differ by industry, controlling for gender and education?
Adults’ Civic Engagement in the U.S. and Germany: Evidence from the PIAAC Survey
(Amy D. Rose and Thomas J. Smith, Northern Illinois University; Jovita M. Ross-Gordon, Texas State University; Jill Zarestky and Tobin Lopes, Colorado State University; M Cecil Smith, West Virginia University; Anke Grotlüschen, University of Hamburg; and Marion Fleige, German Institute for Adult Education (DIE))
This paper examines civic engagement among immigrants and native-born adults in the United States (U.S.) and Germany—world-leading nations with different responses to immigration and assimilation. Civic engagement involves the practices and beliefs underpinning the democratic functions of citizenry, and is operationalized in this study as voluntary work or volunteerism, political efficacy, and social trust. Data for the analyses are drawn from PIAAC. Individual background factors—age, gender, education level, skills, immigrant status, and employment—serve as covariates in our regression models. Several cross-national differences were observed in the relationships among background factors and dimensions of civic engagement. Results are discussed regarding the role of adult education programs for supporting both the transitions of migrants and maintenance of democratic behaviors among native-born citizens.
View full research paper ›
Understanding Educational Aspiration among People in Prison
(Ruth Delaney and Lionel Smith, Vera Institute of Justice)
This paper uses 2014 PIAAC prison data to study demographic and skill-level factors that predict the desire to enroll in a postsecondary program among incarcerated adults detained in the U.S federal and state prisons. The authors study the following question:
What demographic and skill-level factors predict the aspiration to enroll in any education class or program among people in prison in the U.S.?
To hone in on the specifics of those interested in postsecondary education (which make up a majority of those who want to participate in any type of education), this study also includes a secondary chi-square analysis that examines what characteristics are correlated with interest in such a program.
Prison-based Education: Programs, Participation and Proficiency in Literacy/Numeracy
(Jinghong Cai, Anirudh V.S. Ruhil, and Dianne M. Gut, Ohio University)
This paper uses 2014 PIAAC prison data to study the association between literacy/numeracy and correctional education as it relates to program type, ways of course offerings, and job/education history prior to incarceration. Specifically, the authors examine the relationship between participation in correctional education programs while incarcerated and literacy/numeracy skills, addressing the following research questions:
What are the characteristics of the incarcerated population, relative to the household population (in PIAAC), vis-à-vis education levels and literacy/numeracy levels? How do inmates differ from the household population in terms of use of cognitive skills in life and at work?
How do participants in different types of prison-based educational programs (such as basic skills, General Equivalency Degree (GED), employment readiness and job training) perform in literacy and numeracy proficiency? That is, does proficiency vary by program?
What are the reasons reported by inmates for participating (or not) in the academic or vocational programs?
How do inmates with different participation trajectories in prison-based educational programs perform in literacy and numeracy? How do inmates who take courses at different venues and spend different amounts of time taking courses perform in literacy and numeracy?
Do inmates who participate in prison-based academic and/or vocational programs use more literacy and numeracy skills in their prison life, compared with non-participants?
The Influence of Correctional Education, Skills, and Lifelong Learning on Social Outcomes
(Roofia Galeshi and Riane Bolin, Radford University)
This paper uses the 2014 PIAAC prison data to study whether numeracy and literacy skills along with inmate educational and vocational training have an impact on social outcomes. Specifically, the authors address the following questions:
How do literacy, numeracy, formal education, and vocational training affect prison inmates’ social outcomes such as civic engagement, interpersonal trust, and health?
How does the relationship between literacy, numeracy, formal education, and vocational training and social outcomes compare in the two populations—prison and household?
2019 Published Papers
Writing Behaviors Relation to Literacy and Problem Solving in Technology Rich Environments: Results from the 2012 and 2014 U.S. PIAAC Study
(Iris Feinberg, Amani Talwar, Elizabeth Tighe & Daphne Greenberg, The Adult Literacy Research Center, Georgia State University)
This paper uses PIAAC 2012/2014 data to study relations among the PIAAC literacy domain, the problem solving in technology-rich environments (PSTRE) domain, reading behaviors, and various demographic characteristics (e.g., age, educational attainment, race, gender, and native language status) to adults’ writing behaviors at home and at work. Specifically, the researchers address the following questions:
What are the relations among the writing behaviors indices at home/at work and the reading behaviors indices at home/at work? Do these relations vary by demographic characteristics (age, educational attainment, race, gender, or native language status) and reading behaviors?
Are PIAAC literacy and PSTRE skills jointly and uniquely predictive of writing behaviors indices at home and/or at work? Do different demographic characteristics (age, educational attainment, race, gender, or native language status) and/or reading behavior indices at home/at work moderate the relations of literacy and PSTRE levels on writing behaviors at home and/or at work?
What are the relations among functional daily reading behaviors at home/at work (reading directions, letters/emails, newspapers/magazines, books) and functional daily writing behaviors at home/at work (writing letters/emails, filling out forms)? Do these relations vary by demographic characteristics (literacy level, age, educational attainment, race, gender, or native language status)?
Revisiting the Determinants of Literacy Proficiency: A Lifelong-Lifewide Learning Perspective
(Richard Desjardins and Gina Cobin, University of California Los Angeles)
This paper uses PIAAC data to examine the determinants of literacy proficiency. Specifically, the authors aim to further examine the underlying structure of the determinants from a lifecycle perspective and the trends in this structure at both the micro and macro levels for countries that participated in both the PIAAC and IALS studies. The authors address the following questions:
To what extent has literacy proficiency changed since the 1990s and how does this relate to the growth of qualifications and knowledge economies as well as immigration in different countries?
What is the underlying structure of adult literacy from a lifecycle theory perspective? What indicators and pathways to adult literacy proficiency emerge from analysis of data from both the PIAAC and IALS studies?
What are the kinds of policy relevant insights that can be yielded from analyses of PIAAC type trend data regarding the determinants of adult literacy proficiency across specific contexts and across countries?
Collaboration at Work and PIAAC Skills
(Tobin Lopes, Colorado State University; Ellen Scully-Russ, George Washington University; Jill Zarestky, Colorado State University; and Joshua C. Collins, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities)
This paper is focused on studying the relationship between level of collaboration, cooperation, and information sharing at work and respondents’ skills in literacy, numeracy, and problem solving in technology-rich environments. Specifically, authors address the following questions:
What is the relationship between cooperation/collaboration and information sharing and literacy, numeracy, and PS-TRE skills across industry sectors, controlling for gender and education?
How does the relationship between cooperation/collaboration and information sharing and adults’ use of specified skills differ by industry, controlling for gender and education?
Adults’ Civic Engagement in the U.S. and Germany: Evidence from the PIAAC Survey
(Amy D. Rose and Thomas J. Smith, Northern Illinois University; Jovita M. Ross-Gordon, Texas State University; Jill Zarestky and Tobin Lopes, Colorado State University; M Cecil Smith, West Virginia University; Anke Grotlüschen, University of Hamburg; and Marion Fleige, German Institute for Adult Education (DIE))
This paper examines civic engagement among immigrants and native-born adults in the United States (U.S.) and Germany—world-leading nations with different responses to immigration and assimilation. Civic engagement involves the practices and beliefs underpinning the democratic functions of citizenry, and is operationalized in this study as voluntary work or volunteerism, political efficacy, and social trust. Data for the analyses are drawn from PIAAC. Individual background factors—age, gender, education level, skills, immigrant status, and employment—serve as covariates in our regression models. Several cross-national differences were observed in the relationships among background factors and dimensions of civic engagement. Results are discussed regarding the role of adult education programs for supporting both the transitions of migrants and maintenance of democratic behaviors among native-born citizens.
View full research paper ›
Understanding Educational Aspiration among People in Prison
(Ruth Delaney and Lionel Smith, Vera Institute of Justice)
This paper uses 2014 PIAAC prison data to study demographic and skill-level factors that predict the desire to enroll in a postsecondary program among incarcerated adults detained in the U.S federal and state prisons. The authors study the following question:
What demographic and skill-level factors predict the aspiration to enroll in any education class or program among people in prison in the U.S.?
To hone in on the specifics of those interested in postsecondary education (which make up a majority of those who want to participate in any type of education), this study also includes a secondary chi-square analysis that examines what characteristics are correlated with interest in such a program.
Prison-based Education: Programs, Participation and Proficiency in Literacy/Numeracy
(Jinghong Cai, Anirudh V.S. Ruhil, and Dianne M. Gut, Ohio University)
This paper uses 2014 PIAAC prison data to study the association between literacy/numeracy and correctional education as it relates to program type, ways of course offerings, and job/education history prior to incarceration. Specifically, the authors examine the relationship between participation in correctional education programs while incarcerated and literacy/numeracy skills, addressing the following research questions:
What are the characteristics of the incarcerated population, relative to the household population (in PIAAC), vis-à-vis education levels and literacy/numeracy levels? How do inmates differ from the household population in terms of use of cognitive skills in life and at work?
How do participants in different types of prison-based educational programs (such as basic skills, General Equivalency Degree (GED), employment readiness and job training) perform in literacy and numeracy proficiency? That is, does proficiency vary by program?
What are the reasons reported by inmates for participating (or not) in the academic or vocational programs?
How do inmates with different participation trajectories in prison-based educational programs perform in literacy and numeracy? How do inmates who take courses at different venues and spend different amounts of time taking courses perform in literacy and numeracy?
Do inmates who participate in prison-based academic and/or vocational programs use more literacy and numeracy skills in their prison life, compared with non-participants?
The Influence of Correctional Education, Skills, and Lifelong Learning on Social Outcomes
(Roofia Galeshi and Riane Bolin, Radford University)
This paper uses the 2014 PIAAC prison data to study whether numeracy and literacy skills along with inmate educational and vocational training have an impact on social outcomes. Specifically, the authors address the following questions:
How do literacy, numeracy, formal education, and vocational training affect prison inmates’ social outcomes such as civic engagement, interpersonal trust, and health?
How does the relationship between literacy, numeracy, formal education, and vocational training and social outcomes compare in the two populations—prison and household?
2018 Published Papers
Incarcerated Adults with Low Skills: Findings from the 2014 PIAAC Prison Study
(Margaret Becker Patterson, Research Allies for Lifelong Learning)
Incarcerated men and women in state and federal prisons face multiple educational and economic challenges. Disabilities and health concerns of incarcerated adults exceed that of the general population. Despite widespread availability of correctional education programs in prisons, only a small proportion of prisoners complete them. Employing quantitative data from the 2014 PIAAC Prison Study, this paper investigates the characteristics and assessed skill levels of incarcerated adults with less than high school education attainment. It considers how characteristics and assessed skill levels differ by gender and from the general population, as well as the role of current and future learning in the lives of incarcerated adults with low skills. Findings include educational and health vulnerabilities for men and women that may be heightened in already-stressed, impoverished communities. Adults in correctional education programs cite future jobs after release and gaining knowledge as reasons to attend; the same reasons are prominent as motivations for future learning. Even so, the proportion of adults completing these programs and gaining credentials is even lower than earlier research reported.
View full research paper ›
The Importance of Skills and Majors in Determining Future Earnings
(Karly Ford and Junghee Choi, Pennsylvania State University)
This paper uses combined 2012/14 U.S. PIAAC data to study whether literacy and numeracy skills mediate the relationship between college majors and earnings. The analysis explores the role individual skill plays in the relationship between academic major and labor market earnings for college graduates. The working sample includes only 4-year college graduates between the ages 25 and 65. In order to observe only those with strong labor market commitments, the sample is limited to those who work full-time; those who reported working at least 30 hours a week.
View full research paper ›
Numeracy Skills, Health Information-Seeking, and Preventive Health Behaviors among Middle and Older Aged Adults in the U.S.
(Takashi Yamashita, University of Maryland, Baltimore County; Anthony R. Bardo, University of Kentucky; and Darren Liu, Des Moines University)
This paper analyzes numeracy skills in the context of health information-seeking and preventive health behaviors to develop a detailed demographic and socioeconomic profile of middle to older aged adults (aged 45 to 74 years) and their numeracy skills using PIAAC data. Using statistical models to estimate the impacts of numeracy skills on selected health information-seeking and preventative health behaviors, the authors answer the following research questions:
Are there differences in numeracy skills across subgroups of middle to older aged adults by demographic, socioeconomic, and health characteristics?
Are numeracy skills associated with the information sources which the middle to older aged adults use to obtain health information?
Are numeracy skills among middle to older aged adults associated with adherence to recommended preventive health behaviors?
Examining the Ways that Numeracy Skills and Soft Skills are Related to Occupational Status: The Case of U.S. Workers
(Huacong Liu, University of Hamburg; and Frank Fernandez, University of Houston)
Policymakers are increasingly concerned that employees need both foundational skills, such as numeracy, and soft skills to be successful in the 21st century economy. However, there is little empirical research that examines whether foundational skills and soft skills have independent or interactive relationships with occupational outcomes. Based on our analysis of PIAAC data, we find that four self-reported measures of the use of soft skills at work have statistically significant, positive relationships with an employee’s occupational status—and that these relationships are independent of numeracy skill. The soft skills measures that are positively correlated with occupational status are (a) Readiness to Learn; (b) Influence; (c) Planning; and (d) Task Discretion. We also estimate interaction effects between numeracy skill proficiency and all four aspects of soft skills. Result indicate that the relationships between occupational status and two soft skill types (planning and influence) are significantly different between workers with low and high numeracy proficiency. That is, workers with low numeracy skills tend to benefit more from exercising planning or influence skills at work than workers with high numeracy proficiency. Independent of soft skills, workers with higher levels of numeracy skills also tend to have higher occupational status.
View full research paper ›
Associations Between Adults' Numeracy Skills and Employment Status: An Analysis of PIAAC's U.S. Dataset
(Leah Katherine Saal, Loyola University Maryland; Melissa Gholson, West Virginia Department of Education; Krisanna Machtmes, Ohio University; and Ryan Machtmes, University of Minnesota)
This paper explores the relationship between academic skills/proficiencies and employment status in the United States. Using PIAAC data, the authors answer the following questions:
What is the relationship between numeracy skills and employment status compared to the relationship between the other skills measured in PIAAC (literacy and problem solving in technology-rich environments) among U.S. adults?
What is the relationship between numeracy-related skills used in everyday life and employment status for U.S. adults?
An Examination of PIAAC Data for Unemployed Adults Aged 45 to 74
(Phyllis A. Cummins and Annabelle Arbogast, Miami University; Takashi Yamashita, University of Maryland, Baltimore County)
This paper focuses on middle to older age groups (ages 45 to 74) who are either unemployed or not in the labor force (in comparison to those who are employed). The authors examine their characteristics to gain a better understanding of health and economic well-being in relation to educational attainment, continuous learning behaviors (a.k.a. lifelong learning), and skill indicators including literacy, numeracy, and problem-solving skills in the second half of life course, with additional consideration given to the roles skills and technology play in the context of employment status. The paper addresses the following research questions:
Is there any relationship between health status, education, lifelong learning behaviors, and skill indicators including literacy, numeracy, and problem solving skills by employment status?
Is there any relationship between the timing of retirement, health status, education, lifelong learning behaviors, and skill indicators including literacy, numeracy, and problem solving skills?
Is there any difference in use of practical skills including communication technology, computer application, and reading/writing skills among individuals who are employed, unemployed, and not in the labor force?
How frequently do unemployed and not in the labor force adults participate in Adult Education and Training (AET) programs and what are the reasons for non-participation?
2018 Published Papers
Incarcerated Adults with Low Skills: Findings from the 2014 PIAAC Prison Study
(Margaret Becker Patterson, Research Allies for Lifelong Learning)
Incarcerated men and women in state and federal prisons face multiple educational and economic challenges. Disabilities and health concerns of incarcerated adults exceed that of the general population. Despite widespread availability of correctional education programs in prisons, only a small proportion of prisoners complete them. Employing quantitative data from the 2014 PIAAC Prison Study, this paper investigates the characteristics and assessed skill levels of incarcerated adults with less than high school education attainment. It considers how characteristics and assessed skill levels differ by gender and from the general population, as well as the role of current and future learning in the lives of incarcerated adults with low skills. Findings include educational and health vulnerabilities for men and women that may be heightened in already-stressed, impoverished communities. Adults in correctional education programs cite future jobs after release and gaining knowledge as reasons to attend; the same reasons are prominent as motivations for future learning. Even so, the proportion of adults completing these programs and gaining credentials is even lower than earlier research reported.
View full research paper ›
The Importance of Skills and Majors in Determining Future Earnings
(Karly Ford and Junghee Choi, Pennsylvania State University)
This paper uses combined 2012/14 U.S. PIAAC data to study whether literacy and numeracy skills mediate the relationship between college majors and earnings. The analysis explores the role individual skill plays in the relationship between academic major and labor market earnings for college graduates. The working sample includes only 4-year college graduates between the ages 25 and 65. In order to observe only those with strong labor market commitments, the sample is limited to those who work full-time; those who reported working at least 30 hours a week.
View full research paper ›
Numeracy Skills, Health Information-Seeking, and Preventive Health Behaviors among Middle and Older Aged Adults in the U.S.
(Takashi Yamashita, University of Maryland, Baltimore County; Anthony R. Bardo, University of Kentucky; and Darren Liu, Des Moines University)
This paper analyzes numeracy skills in the context of health information-seeking and preventive health behaviors to develop a detailed demographic and socioeconomic profile of middle to older aged adults (aged 45 to 74 years) and their numeracy skills using PIAAC data. Using statistical models to estimate the impacts of numeracy skills on selected health information-seeking and preventative health behaviors, the authors answer the following research questions:
Are there differences in numeracy skills across subgroups of middle to older aged adults by demographic, socioeconomic, and health characteristics?
Are numeracy skills associated with the information sources which the middle to older aged adults use to obtain health information?
Are numeracy skills among middle to older aged adults associated with adherence to recommended preventive health behaviors?
Examining the Ways that Numeracy Skills and Soft Skills are Related to Occupational Status: The Case of U.S. Workers
(Huacong Liu, University of Hamburg; and Frank Fernandez, University of Houston)
Policymakers are increasingly concerned that employees need both foundational skills, such as numeracy, and soft skills to be successful in the 21st century economy. However, there is little empirical research that examines whether foundational skills and soft skills have independent or interactive relationships with occupational outcomes. Based on our analysis of PIAAC data, we find that four self-reported measures of the use of soft skills at work have statistically significant, positive relationships with an employee’s occupational status—and that these relationships are independent of numeracy skill. The soft skills measures that are positively correlated with occupational status are (a) Readiness to Learn; (b) Influence; (c) Planning; and (d) Task Discretion. We also estimate interaction effects between numeracy skill proficiency and all four aspects of soft skills. Result indicate that the relationships between occupational status and two soft skill types (planning and influence) are significantly different between workers with low and high numeracy proficiency. That is, workers with low numeracy skills tend to benefit more from exercising planning or influence skills at work than workers with high numeracy proficiency. Independent of soft skills, workers with higher levels of numeracy skills also tend to have higher occupational status.
View full research paper ›
Associations Between Adults' Numeracy Skills and Employment Status: An Analysis of PIAAC's U.S. Dataset
(Leah Katherine Saal, Loyola University Maryland; Melissa Gholson, West Virginia Department of Education; Krisanna Machtmes, Ohio University; and Ryan Machtmes, University of Minnesota)
This paper explores the relationship between academic skills/proficiencies and employment status in the United States. Using PIAAC data, the authors answer the following questions:
What is the relationship between numeracy skills and employment status compared to the relationship between the other skills measured in PIAAC (literacy and problem solving in technology-rich environments) among U.S. adults?
What is the relationship between numeracy-related skills used in everyday life and employment status for U.S. adults?
An Examination of PIAAC Data for Unemployed Adults Aged 45 to 74
(Phyllis A. Cummins and Annabelle Arbogast, Miami University; Takashi Yamashita, University of Maryland, Baltimore County)
This paper focuses on middle to older age groups (ages 45 to 74) who are either unemployed or not in the labor force (in comparison to those who are employed). The authors examine their characteristics to gain a better understanding of health and economic well-being in relation to educational attainment, continuous learning behaviors (a.k.a. lifelong learning), and skill indicators including literacy, numeracy, and problem-solving skills in the second half of life course, with additional consideration given to the roles skills and technology play in the context of employment status. The paper addresses the following research questions:
Is there any relationship between health status, education, lifelong learning behaviors, and skill indicators including literacy, numeracy, and problem solving skills by employment status?
Is there any relationship between the timing of retirement, health status, education, lifelong learning behaviors, and skill indicators including literacy, numeracy, and problem solving skills?
Is there any difference in use of practical skills including communication technology, computer application, and reading/writing skills among individuals who are employed, unemployed, and not in the labor force?
How frequently do unemployed and not in the labor force adults participate in Adult Education and Training (AET) programs and what are the reasons for non-participation?
2017 Published Papers
Using the PIAAC Literacy Framework to Guide Instruction: An Introduction for Adult Educators
(Amy R. Trawick, Center for Adult Learning Leadership and Advancement)
The purpose of this introductory guide is to describe how adult literacy practitioners – such as teachers, lead instructors, and professional developers – might enhance their efforts with adult developing readers by incorporating relevant tools from PIAAC’s literacy framework to support the goals of WIOA, the CCRS, and adult learners themselves.
View full research paper ›
Using the PIAAC Numeracy Framework to Guide Instruction: An Introduction for Adult Educators
(Donna Curry, Center for Adult Numeracy at TERC)
This guide is designed for practitioners, including teachers, lead instructors, and professional developers, who are ready to take up the challenge to change how numeracy is taught in adult education. If instructors shift their teaching to focus more on the use of numeracy skills, they might find that their students not only score better on formal assessments but that they are more effective in using numeracy in their daily lives.
View full research paper ›
Using the PIAAC Framework for Problem Solving in Technology-Rich Environments to Guide Instruction: An Introduction for Adult Educators
(Jenifer B. Vanek, University of Minnesota)
This brief is a guide for Adult Education and Literacy practitioners who are ready to teach the PS-TRE. One goal of the guide is to nudge practitioners to reconsider current technology integration in ABE classrooms, adding a cognitive dimension to their technology use instruction. In doing so, teachers can include instructional activities that help learners to not only use technologies, but also develop an understanding of the complex processes required to employ them. Whether teaching in Adult Basic Education (ABE), Adult Secondary Education (ASE), or English Language Acquisition programs, practitioners can refer to the brief when creating curricular activities that teach how to solve problems or handle day-to-day activities in the digital environment.
View full research paper ›
Examining Gender Differences in the Mathematical Literacy of 15-Year-Olds and the Numeracy Skills of the Age Cohorts as Adults
(Alka Arora and Emily Pawlowski, American Institutes for Research)
Using PIAAC and PISA data, this paper examines the relationship of the mathematics proficiency of fifteen-year-olds to the proficiency of their age cohort as adults. The mathematical literacy performance of fifteen-year-olds in PISA 2003 and the numeracy performance of the relevant age cohort that participated in PIAAC 2012, which assessed adults aged 16 to 65, is compared. After exploring similarities or differences in the performance of countries on these two assessments, and looking at performance by gender, this study then focuses on factors that may contribute to changes in gender differences over time, such as field of study, occupation, and skill use at work and at home.
View full research paper ›
Literacy and Childbearing Across OECD and Partner Nations
(Jane Seymour, Rosemary Frasso, and Ian Bennett, University of Pennsylvania)
Demographic, public health, and medical research indicate that total parity—that is, the number of children born to each woman—is associated with individual and population health, as well as national economic health. The health and educational impacts of the number of children born per woman are particularly important to consider as developed countries, including the United States, propose changes to parental policies, which encourage childbirth.
This paper offers insight into the degree to which literacy can mediate the effects of age and other sociodemographic factors on parity across the countries participating in PIAAC. It also offers insight into the role of literacy in the relationship between race/ethnicity and parity in the United States.
View full research paper ›
2017 Published Papers
Using the PIAAC Literacy Framework to Guide Instruction: An Introduction for Adult Educators
(Amy R. Trawick, Center for Adult Learning Leadership and Advancement)
The purpose of this introductory guide is to describe how adult literacy practitioners – such as teachers, lead instructors, and professional developers – might enhance their efforts with adult developing readers by incorporating relevant tools from PIAAC’s literacy framework to support the goals of WIOA, the CCRS, and adult learners themselves.
View full research paper ›
Using the PIAAC Numeracy Framework to Guide Instruction: An Introduction for Adult Educators
(Donna Curry, Center for Adult Numeracy at TERC)
This guide is designed for practitioners, including teachers, lead instructors, and professional developers, who are ready to take up the challenge to change how numeracy is taught in adult education. If instructors shift their teaching to focus more on the use of numeracy skills, they might find that their students not only score better on formal assessments but that they are more effective in using numeracy in their daily lives.
View full research paper ›
Using the PIAAC Framework for Problem Solving in Technology-Rich Environments to Guide Instruction: An Introduction for Adult Educators
(Jenifer B. Vanek, University of Minnesota)
This brief is a guide for Adult Education and Literacy practitioners who are ready to teach the PS-TRE. One goal of the guide is to nudge practitioners to reconsider current technology integration in ABE classrooms, adding a cognitive dimension to their technology use instruction. In doing so, teachers can include instructional activities that help learners to not only use technologies, but also develop an understanding of the complex processes required to employ them. Whether teaching in Adult Basic Education (ABE), Adult Secondary Education (ASE), or English Language Acquisition programs, practitioners can refer to the brief when creating curricular activities that teach how to solve problems or handle day-to-day activities in the digital environment.
View full research paper ›
Examining Gender Differences in the Mathematical Literacy of 15-Year-Olds and the Numeracy Skills of the Age Cohorts as Adults
(Alka Arora and Emily Pawlowski, American Institutes for Research)
Using PIAAC and PISA data, this paper examines the relationship of the mathematics proficiency of fifteen-year-olds to the proficiency of their age cohort as adults. The mathematical literacy performance of fifteen-year-olds in PISA 2003 and the numeracy performance of the relevant age cohort that participated in PIAAC 2012, which assessed adults aged 16 to 65, is compared. After exploring similarities or differences in the performance of countries on these two assessments, and looking at performance by gender, this study then focuses on factors that may contribute to changes in gender differences over time, such as field of study, occupation, and skill use at work and at home.
View full research paper ›
Literacy and Childbearing Across OECD and Partner Nations
(Jane Seymour, Rosemary Frasso, and Ian Bennett, University of Pennsylvania)
Demographic, public health, and medical research indicate that total parity—that is, the number of children born to each woman—is associated with individual and population health, as well as national economic health. The health and educational impacts of the number of children born per woman are particularly important to consider as developed countries, including the United States, propose changes to parental policies, which encourage childbirth.
This paper offers insight into the degree to which literacy can mediate the effects of age and other sociodemographic factors on parity across the countries participating in PIAAC. It also offers insight into the role of literacy in the relationship between race/ethnicity and parity in the United States.
View full research paper ›
2016 Published Papers
Education and Work in the 21st Century: Credential Inflation or Transformation?
(Frank Fernandez and Mark Umbricht, Pennsylvania State University)
This paper analyzes data from the U.S. PIAAC Main Study, the Adult Literacy and Life Skills Survey (ALL), and the International Adult Literacy Skills Survey (IALS) to test two competing paradigms in educational and social science research: credential inflation (the idea that degrees are becoming more costly and less valuable in the labor market); and educational transformation (the idea that education is not becoming less valuable, but rather that education, skills, and work are evolving in the knowledge economy).
The analysis is guided by a series of related questions:
Is there any relationship between years of education and employment status and type of employment (supervisory duties and job tasks) over time?
Are respondents with similar levels of education likely to work similar numbers of hours per week (testing for underemployment) over time?
Do respondents with similar levels of education tend to have similar earnings over time (after adjusting for inflation)?
Were years of education or literacy skills better predictors of labor market outcomes in 2012 than 2003 or 1994?
View full research paper ›
View Excel file ›
Literacy and Numeracy Skills of Second-Generation Young Adults: A Comparative Study of Canada, France, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States
(Jeanne Batalova and Michael Fix, Migration Policy Institute)
This paper examines the characteristics and competencies of young adults between ages 16 to 34 by immigrant generation—the population that should benefit the most from targeted educational and workforce training programs to improve employment prospects and increase national economic productivity.
Specifically, the authors analyze PIAAC data in order to answer the following research questions:
What are the key demographic and social characteristics of young adults (ages 16 to 34) by generation? How do they vary across the five study countries (Canada, Germany, France, the United Kingdom, and the United States)?
How do the skills of the second-generation young adults compare to those of the first, immigrant generation?
Do the second-generation young adults in Canada, France, Germany, and the United Kingdom catch up with the third generation as they do in the United States?
Reconstructing the Evolution of the American Supply of Cognitive Skills: A Synthetic Cohort Analysis
(Marilyn Binkley and T. Scott Murray, DataAngel Policy Research; Richard Shillington, Tristat Resources)
Changes in average literacy scores of adult populations and population subgroups are the product of the net impact of significant skill gain and skill loss. By conducting a synthetic cohort analysis with data from the PIAAC Main Study, the Adult Literacy and Life Skills Survey (ALL), and the International Adult Literacy Skills Survey (IALS), we reconstruct an approximation of individual skill trajectories over time. These data allow for a comparison of differences in the distribution of skill gain and loss in population sub-groups. The data also provide a means to explore the factors that are associated with skill gain and loss, including characteristics of the jobs held. Because skill has a significant impact on labor market, social, health and education outcomes at both the individual and macro levels, there is a strong policy interest in understanding the social and economic processes that underlie skill gain and loss.
View full research paper ›
Persisting Gaps: Labor Market Outcomes and Numeracy Skill Levels of First-Generation and Multi-Generation College Graduates
(Karly Sarita Ford and Mark Richard Umbricht, Pennsylvania State University)
This paper uses PIAAC data to focus on economic mobility in the United States and the relationship between social origins, education, individual skills, and occupational destinations. It is widely believed that a college degree erases any social advantage or disadvantage an individual had as a child. Many scholars have tested this relationship—in the United States and abroad—using nationally representative data sets. However, few have been able to assess this relationship while taking into account individual cognitive skills, defined in the paper as numeracy skills. PIAAC provides researchers with the unique opportunity to analyze the relationship between individual numeracy skill levels and education credentials and social mobility.
Specifically, the authors investigate the following questions:
Is there a difference in numeracy scores between first-generation college graduates and multi-generation college graduates? In other words, are the advantages of having highly educated parents associated with educational attainment and cognitive skills in adulthood?
Is college graduate generational status related to employment outcomes after controlling for numeracy score? Or are the advantages of having highly educated parents associated with employment outcomes in adulthood?
View full research paper ›
View Excel file ›
Earnings and Employment Benefits of Adult Higher Education in Comparative Perspective: Evidence Based on the OECD Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC)
(Richard Desjardins, University of California Los Angeles)
This paper seeks to examine comparatively across OECD countries the earnings and labor force status differentials of adults who completed their higher education (HE) degree at older ages than the normative age of graduation. Statistical differentials in labor market outcomes such as earnings are compared between adults who completed their highest qualification before or after the normative age. Results reveal comparative policy insights, for example, regarding the potential effects of HE institutions that open up their doors to non-traditional students.
The paper builds on the work carried out by Margaret Becker Patterson and Usha Paulson who made use of the PIAAC data to study post-secondary transitions of adult in the U.S. (paper entitled Adult Transitions to Learning in the USA: What do PIAAC survey results tell us?). Those authors had focused exclusively on U.S. data. In contrast, this paper is based on a comparative analysis of data to draw out policy insights for the U.S. case. Moreover, the analysis of the labor market outcomes is much more detailed and linked to the existing international literature on this topic.
The research paper addresses the following questions:
What is the incidence of adult higher education in comparative perspective?
Who participates in adult higher education in comparative perspective?
What does research say about the higher education outcomes for non-traditional students compared to traditional students?
What are the comparative earnings differentials of traditional vs non-traditional students using PIAAC data?
What are the comparative employment differentials of traditional vs non-traditional students using PIAAC data?
What is the link between the openness of HE systems to non-traditional students and the overall employment rate?
What is the link between the openness of HE systems to non-traditional students and cross-country skill profiles?
2016 Published Papers
Education and Work in the 21st Century: Credential Inflation or Transformation?
(Frank Fernandez and Mark Umbricht, Pennsylvania State University)
This paper analyzes data from the U.S. PIAAC Main Study, the Adult Literacy and Life Skills Survey (ALL), and the International Adult Literacy Skills Survey (IALS) to test two competing paradigms in educational and social science research: credential inflation (the idea that degrees are becoming more costly and less valuable in the labor market); and educational transformation (the idea that education is not becoming less valuable, but rather that education, skills, and work are evolving in the knowledge economy).
The analysis is guided by a series of related questions:
Is there any relationship between years of education and employment status and type of employment (supervisory duties and job tasks) over time?
Are respondents with similar levels of education likely to work similar numbers of hours per week (testing for underemployment) over time?
Do respondents with similar levels of education tend to have similar earnings over time (after adjusting for inflation)?
Were years of education or literacy skills better predictors of labor market outcomes in 2012 than 2003 or 1994?
View full research paper ›
View Excel file ›
Literacy and Numeracy Skills of Second-Generation Young Adults: A Comparative Study of Canada, France, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States
(Jeanne Batalova and Michael Fix, Migration Policy Institute)
This paper examines the characteristics and competencies of young adults between ages 16 to 34 by immigrant generation—the population that should benefit the most from targeted educational and workforce training programs to improve employment prospects and increase national economic productivity.
Specifically, the authors analyze PIAAC data in order to answer the following research questions:
What are the key demographic and social characteristics of young adults (ages 16 to 34) by generation? How do they vary across the five study countries (Canada, Germany, France, the United Kingdom, and the United States)?
How do the skills of the second-generation young adults compare to those of the first, immigrant generation?
Do the second-generation young adults in Canada, France, Germany, and the United Kingdom catch up with the third generation as they do in the United States?
Reconstructing the Evolution of the American Supply of Cognitive Skills: A Synthetic Cohort Analysis
(Marilyn Binkley and T. Scott Murray, DataAngel Policy Research; Richard Shillington, Tristat Resources)
Changes in average literacy scores of adult populations and population subgroups are the product of the net impact of significant skill gain and skill loss. By conducting a synthetic cohort analysis with data from the PIAAC Main Study, the Adult Literacy and Life Skills Survey (ALL), and the International Adult Literacy Skills Survey (IALS), we reconstruct an approximation of individual skill trajectories over time. These data allow for a comparison of differences in the distribution of skill gain and loss in population sub-groups. The data also provide a means to explore the factors that are associated with skill gain and loss, including characteristics of the jobs held. Because skill has a significant impact on labor market, social, health and education outcomes at both the individual and macro levels, there is a strong policy interest in understanding the social and economic processes that underlie skill gain and loss.
View full research paper ›
Persisting Gaps: Labor Market Outcomes and Numeracy Skill Levels of First-Generation and Multi-Generation College Graduates
(Karly Sarita Ford and Mark Richard Umbricht, Pennsylvania State University)
This paper uses PIAAC data to focus on economic mobility in the United States and the relationship between social origins, education, individual skills, and occupational destinations. It is widely believed that a college degree erases any social advantage or disadvantage an individual had as a child. Many scholars have tested this relationship—in the United States and abroad—using nationally representative data sets. However, few have been able to assess this relationship while taking into account individual cognitive skills, defined in the paper as numeracy skills. PIAAC provides researchers with the unique opportunity to analyze the relationship between individual numeracy skill levels and education credentials and social mobility.
Specifically, the authors investigate the following questions:
Is there a difference in numeracy scores between first-generation college graduates and multi-generation college graduates? In other words, are the advantages of having highly educated parents associated with educational attainment and cognitive skills in adulthood?
Is college graduate generational status related to employment outcomes after controlling for numeracy score? Or are the advantages of having highly educated parents associated with employment outcomes in adulthood?
View full research paper ›
View Excel file ›
Earnings and Employment Benefits of Adult Higher Education in Comparative Perspective: Evidence Based on the OECD Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC)
(Richard Desjardins, University of California Los Angeles)
This paper seeks to examine comparatively across OECD countries the earnings and labor force status differentials of adults who completed their higher education (HE) degree at older ages than the normative age of graduation. Statistical differentials in labor market outcomes such as earnings are compared between adults who completed their highest qualification before or after the normative age. Results reveal comparative policy insights, for example, regarding the potential effects of HE institutions that open up their doors to non-traditional students.
The paper builds on the work carried out by Margaret Becker Patterson and Usha Paulson who made use of the PIAAC data to study post-secondary transitions of adult in the U.S. (paper entitled Adult Transitions to Learning in the USA: What do PIAAC survey results tell us?). Those authors had focused exclusively on U.S. data. In contrast, this paper is based on a comparative analysis of data to draw out policy insights for the U.S. case. Moreover, the analysis of the labor market outcomes is much more detailed and linked to the existing international literature on this topic.
The research paper addresses the following questions:
What is the incidence of adult higher education in comparative perspective?
Who participates in adult higher education in comparative perspective?
What does research say about the higher education outcomes for non-traditional students compared to traditional students?
What are the comparative earnings differentials of traditional vs non-traditional students using PIAAC data?
What are the comparative employment differentials of traditional vs non-traditional students using PIAAC data?
What is the link between the openness of HE systems to non-traditional students and the overall employment rate?
What is the link between the openness of HE systems to non-traditional students and cross-country skill profiles?
2015 Published Papers
Adults’ Readiness to Learn as a Predictor of Literacy Skills
(M Cecil Smith, West Virginia University; Amy Rose, Northern Illinois University; Jovita Ross-Gordon, Texas State University; Thomas J. Smith, Northern IIlinois University)
This paper looks at PIAAC’s “readiness to learn” index in a U.S. context and examine the extent to which it is related to skill levels in literacy, numeracy, and problem solving in technology-rich environments (PS-TRE) and whether it mediates the effects of demographic and socio-economic factors on skill levels. The paper also examines whether the relationships among readiness to learn, skill levels, and skill use vary by selected demographic factors, such as gender, age, work experience, and education, and examines whether the index is correlated with the U.S. adults’ participation in learning activities, such as open/distance education and on-the-job training.
View full research paper ›
Gender and Numerical Skill Use: Cross-National Revelations from PIAAC
(Danielle Lindemann, Rutgers University)
This paper seeks to understand whether there are significant gaps in the extent to which men and women use numerical skills at work; what the importance of a variety of covariates including education level, age cohort, job title, and country of residence are to these gendered outcomes; and what relationship, if any, there is between gender disparity in deployment of numerical skills and gender disparity in earnings. It also seeks to assess the relationship between gender, type of occupation, and use of numeracy.
View full research paper ›
Revisiting the effects of skills on economic inequality: Within- and cross-country comparisons using PIAAC
(Anita Alves Pena, Colorado State University)
By conducting analysis on PIAAC data, this study adds to the existing literature on the relationship between wage inequality and the literacy, numeracy, and problem-solving skills of adults in an international context. The analysis includes both individual-level and country-level data from PIAAC and supplemental sources and takes into account both demographic and educational institution differences within and across participating countries in order to explore the effects of education and training opportunities on wage inequality across groups of people.
View full research paper ›
Education and Wage Gaps: A Comparative Study of Immigrant and Native Employees in the United States and Canada
(William Smith and Frank Fernandez, Penn State University)
This paper examines whether, after matching on occupation, there are wage differences between native citizens and immigrants with similar skills, cognitive abilities, and education levels. The U.S. and Canada comparison is important, given that the United States and Canada receive more than half of all OECD immigrants and two-thirds of the OECD immigrants who have attended tertiary institutions. The research specifically examines whether there are differences in the educational attainment of immigrants in the United States and Canada, how immigrants differ from natives in terms of educational attainment, cognitive abilities, and technological skills, and examines whether the factors that influence wage disparities differ between countries.
View full research paper ›
Understanding Health Information Seeking Behaviors of Adults with Low Literacy, Numeracy, and Problem Solving Skills: Results from the 2012 US PIAAC Study
(Iris Feinberg and Daphne Greenberg, Georgia State University; Jan C. Frijters, Brock University)
This study aims to shed more light on the complex and interactive relationship between health, literacy, and health-information seeking. The research explores whether there is a relationship between SES factors, English literacy skills, and the sources people use to seek health information (i.e., Internet, television, family members or friends). It also looks at whether people with different health status and preventive health practices seek health information in different ways, and if so, what role literacy levels play.
View full research paper ›
Examining Associations between Adult Health and Literacy, Numeracy, Technological Problem-Solving Skills, and Post-Initial Learning in the U.S.
(Shannon Monnat, Esther Prins, Carol Clymer, Blaire Toso, Penn State University)
This paper examines how U.S. respondents’ health outcomes are shaped by literacy, numeracy, and information and communication technology (ICT) skills, and how this varies by race/ethnicity and educational attainment. In addition, the project identifies which types of post-initial education (a) have the strongest association with health and (b) matter the most for the health outcomes of different racial/ethnic groups and individuals with different levels of educational attainment.
View full research paper ›
Adult Education and Training Programs for Older Adults in the U.S.: National Results and Cross-National Comparisons Using PIAAC Data
(Phyllis Cummins, Ryan Walker, and Suzanne Kunkel, Scripps Gerontology Center at Miami University)
This paper examines outcomes for adults in the U.S. and several other countries, including Japan, Sweden, and Germany, who participated in varying levels of adult education and training (AET). The research examines what types and intensities of AET relate to labor force participation, employment, and income, as well as how these outcomes vary by selected demographic factors, such as age group, gender, educational attainment. In addition, this study reviews policies and practices for AET in the countries included in this research.
View full research paper ›
Adult Transitions to Learning in the USA: What Do PIAAC Survey Results Tell Us?
(Margaret Becker Patterson and Usha G. Paulson, Research Allies for Lifelong Learning)
This paper uses PIAAC data to examine U.S. adult transitions into post-secondary education and training. The paper compares data on post-secondary education and training participation reported in PIAAC for traditional vs. non-traditional students. Traditional students are defined as those who have graduated from high school and attended or graduated from college in the 16-24 age range. Non-traditional students are those who did not complete high school but attended college, regardless of age; or those who are 25-65 years of age and indicated attending or graduating from college at age 25 or older. The paper examines their motivations and hindrances for further formal and informal training, as well as their PIAAC skill levels and current earnings. Along with the PIAAC data, the paper uses nationwide data available through other sources to provide a richer picture of the educational transition opportunities available for Americans today.
View full research paper ›
Digital Inclusion and Digital Literacy in the United States: A Portrait from PIAAC’s Survey of Adult Skills
(Stephen Reder, Portland State University)
This paper uses PIAAC data to explore the various pathways and background characteristics that lead towards digital inclusion and digital literacy. It also examines the ways in which problem-solving in technology-rich environments is related to other skills and activities of Americans. Building on the reported low performance levels of the adults in the United States compared to their international peers, it examines the conditions and pre-conditions which limit skill development opportunities in such a technologically rich environment as the United States. In the process of exploring these topics, the paper develops indicators of digital inclusion and digital literacy based on the data available in PIAAC and other closely related data sets.
View full research paper ›
What Does PIAAC Tell Us About the Skills and Competencies of Immigrant Adults in the United States?
(Jeanne Batalova and Michael Fix, Migration Policy Institute)
This paper uses PIAAC data to examine immigration and social and economic integration of immigrants into various aspects of life in the United States. Comprising less than a sixth of the total population, the American Community Survey reported foreign-born adults as more likely to be in the labor force than the native-born population. At the same time, the foreign-born are reported to have both lower educational attainment and lower performance on direct assessments of competencies, such as PIAAC, than native-born adults. This suggests that while immigrants are being integrated in some aspects, they are being excluded in other very important aspects of U.S. life. This paper integrates PIAAC data with data available through other sources to provide a rich picture of the level of participation of foreign-born adults in United States. It examines indicators of immigrant integration using PIAAC data and explores the education and other characteristics that are associated with greater integration of this segment of the population.
View full research paper ›
Cognitive Skills in the U.S. Labor Market: For Whom Do They Matter?
(Harry Holzer, Georgetown University and AIR; and Robert Lerman, American University and Urban Institute)
This paper extends the analysis of the relationship between skills proficiency and labor market outcomes well beyond the findings in the OECD report on the United States. Among the questions it examines are the following:
How do proficiency levels in literacy, numeracy and problem-solving vary between and within demographic, education and occupational groups? For which subgroups is the lack of basic skills proficiency most pronounced? Do we find skill shortfalls in one of the three areas even for native-born groups with postsecondary credentials or in middle-skill occupations?
Do weak skill proficiencies significantly limit the ability of workers from obtaining middle-skill credentials and jobs or do those holding such jobs vary widely in their proficiencies?
To what extent are earnings differentials related to differentials in literacy, numeracy, and problem-solving levels, even within occupations that do and do not require some postsecondary credentials?
To what extent does skill proficiency correlate with worker perceptions of the skill demands of jobs? How do differentials in skill use on the job differ from measures of proficiency? How do these relationships vary across occupations?
The answers to these questions highlight key facts and relationships and suggest subsequent analyses of the U.S. PIAAC micro data.
View full research paper ›
2015 Published Papers
Adults’ Readiness to Learn as a Predictor of Literacy Skills
(M Cecil Smith, West Virginia University; Amy Rose, Northern Illinois University; Jovita Ross-Gordon, Texas State University; Thomas J. Smith, Northern IIlinois University)
This paper looks at PIAAC’s “readiness to learn” index in a U.S. context and examine the extent to which it is related to skill levels in literacy, numeracy, and problem solving in technology-rich environments (PS-TRE) and whether it mediates the effects of demographic and socio-economic factors on skill levels. The paper also examines whether the relationships among readiness to learn, skill levels, and skill use vary by selected demographic factors, such as gender, age, work experience, and education, and examines whether the index is correlated with the U.S. adults’ participation in learning activities, such as open/distance education and on-the-job training.
View full research paper ›
Gender and Numerical Skill Use: Cross-National Revelations from PIAAC
(Danielle Lindemann, Rutgers University)
This paper seeks to understand whether there are significant gaps in the extent to which men and women use numerical skills at work; what the importance of a variety of covariates including education level, age cohort, job title, and country of residence are to these gendered outcomes; and what relationship, if any, there is between gender disparity in deployment of numerical skills and gender disparity in earnings. It also seeks to assess the relationship between gender, type of occupation, and use of numeracy.
View full research paper ›
Revisiting the effects of skills on economic inequality: Within- and cross-country comparisons using PIAAC
(Anita Alves Pena, Colorado State University)
By conducting analysis on PIAAC data, this study adds to the existing literature on the relationship between wage inequality and the literacy, numeracy, and problem-solving skills of adults in an international context. The analysis includes both individual-level and country-level data from PIAAC and supplemental sources and takes into account both demographic and educational institution differences within and across participating countries in order to explore the effects of education and training opportunities on wage inequality across groups of people.
View full research paper ›
Education and Wage Gaps: A Comparative Study of Immigrant and Native Employees in the United States and Canada
(William Smith and Frank Fernandez, Penn State University)
This paper examines whether, after matching on occupation, there are wage differences between native citizens and immigrants with similar skills, cognitive abilities, and education levels. The U.S. and Canada comparison is important, given that the United States and Canada receive more than half of all OECD immigrants and two-thirds of the OECD immigrants who have attended tertiary institutions. The research specifically examines whether there are differences in the educational attainment of immigrants in the United States and Canada, how immigrants differ from natives in terms of educational attainment, cognitive abilities, and technological skills, and examines whether the factors that influence wage disparities differ between countries.
View full research paper ›
Understanding Health Information Seeking Behaviors of Adults with Low Literacy, Numeracy, and Problem Solving Skills: Results from the 2012 US PIAAC Study
(Iris Feinberg and Daphne Greenberg, Georgia State University; Jan C. Frijters, Brock University)
This study aims to shed more light on the complex and interactive relationship between health, literacy, and health-information seeking. The research explores whether there is a relationship between SES factors, English literacy skills, and the sources people use to seek health information (i.e., Internet, television, family members or friends). It also looks at whether people with different health status and preventive health practices seek health information in different ways, and if so, what role literacy levels play.
View full research paper ›
Examining Associations between Adult Health and Literacy, Numeracy, Technological Problem-Solving Skills, and Post-Initial Learning in the U.S.
(Shannon Monnat, Esther Prins, Carol Clymer, Blaire Toso, Penn State University)
This paper examines how U.S. respondents’ health outcomes are shaped by literacy, numeracy, and information and communication technology (ICT) skills, and how this varies by race/ethnicity and educational attainment. In addition, the project identifies which types of post-initial education (a) have the strongest association with health and (b) matter the most for the health outcomes of different racial/ethnic groups and individuals with different levels of educational attainment.
View full research paper ›
Adult Education and Training Programs for Older Adults in the U.S.: National Results and Cross-National Comparisons Using PIAAC Data
(Phyllis Cummins, Ryan Walker, and Suzanne Kunkel, Scripps Gerontology Center at Miami University)
This paper examines outcomes for adults in the U.S. and several other countries, including Japan, Sweden, and Germany, who participated in varying levels of adult education and training (AET). The research examines what types and intensities of AET relate to labor force participation, employment, and income, as well as how these outcomes vary by selected demographic factors, such as age group, gender, educational attainment. In addition, this study reviews policies and practices for AET in the countries included in this research.
View full research paper ›
Adult Transitions to Learning in the USA: What Do PIAAC Survey Results Tell Us?
(Margaret Becker Patterson and Usha G. Paulson, Research Allies for Lifelong Learning)
This paper uses PIAAC data to examine U.S. adult transitions into post-secondary education and training. The paper compares data on post-secondary education and training participation reported in PIAAC for traditional vs. non-traditional students. Traditional students are defined as those who have graduated from high school and attended or graduated from college in the 16-24 age range. Non-traditional students are those who did not complete high school but attended college, regardless of age; or those who are 25-65 years of age and indicated attending or graduating from college at age 25 or older. The paper examines their motivations and hindrances for further formal and informal training, as well as their PIAAC skill levels and current earnings. Along with the PIAAC data, the paper uses nationwide data available through other sources to provide a richer picture of the educational transition opportunities available for Americans today.
View full research paper ›
Digital Inclusion and Digital Literacy in the United States: A Portrait from PIAAC’s Survey of Adult Skills
(Stephen Reder, Portland State University)
This paper uses PIAAC data to explore the various pathways and background characteristics that lead towards digital inclusion and digital literacy. It also examines the ways in which problem-solving in technology-rich environments is related to other skills and activities of Americans. Building on the reported low performance levels of the adults in the United States compared to their international peers, it examines the conditions and pre-conditions which limit skill development opportunities in such a technologically rich environment as the United States. In the process of exploring these topics, the paper develops indicators of digital inclusion and digital literacy based on the data available in PIAAC and other closely related data sets.
View full research paper ›
What Does PIAAC Tell Us About the Skills and Competencies of Immigrant Adults in the United States?
(Jeanne Batalova and Michael Fix, Migration Policy Institute)
This paper uses PIAAC data to examine immigration and social and economic integration of immigrants into various aspects of life in the United States. Comprising less than a sixth of the total population, the American Community Survey reported foreign-born adults as more likely to be in the labor force than the native-born population. At the same time, the foreign-born are reported to have both lower educational attainment and lower performance on direct assessments of competencies, such as PIAAC, than native-born adults. This suggests that while immigrants are being integrated in some aspects, they are being excluded in other very important aspects of U.S. life. This paper integrates PIAAC data with data available through other sources to provide a rich picture of the level of participation of foreign-born adults in United States. It examines indicators of immigrant integration using PIAAC data and explores the education and other characteristics that are associated with greater integration of this segment of the population.
View full research paper ›
Cognitive Skills in the U.S. Labor Market: For Whom Do They Matter?
(Harry Holzer, Georgetown University and AIR; and Robert Lerman, American University and Urban Institute)
This paper extends the analysis of the relationship between skills proficiency and labor market outcomes well beyond the findings in the OECD report on the United States. Among the questions it examines are the following:
How do proficiency levels in literacy, numeracy and problem-solving vary between and within demographic, education and occupational groups? For which subgroups is the lack of basic skills proficiency most pronounced? Do we find skill shortfalls in one of the three areas even for native-born groups with postsecondary credentials or in middle-skill occupations?
Do weak skill proficiencies significantly limit the ability of workers from obtaining middle-skill credentials and jobs or do those holding such jobs vary widely in their proficiencies?
To what extent are earnings differentials related to differentials in literacy, numeracy, and problem-solving levels, even within occupations that do and do not require some postsecondary credentials?
To what extent does skill proficiency correlate with worker perceptions of the skill demands of jobs? How do differentials in skill use on the job differ from measures of proficiency? How do these relationships vary across occupations?
The answers to these questions highlight key facts and relationships and suggest subsequent analyses of the U.S. PIAAC micro data.
View full research paper ›
